Major depression is a widespread chronic illness that significantly contributes to the global burden of disease. In 2010, depressive disorders were the second leading cause of years lived with disability in Canada, the United States, and across the globe. When considering deaths from suicide and stroke related to depression, it ranks third in the global burden of disease. The overall burden of major depression is increasing, and it is expected to be the leading cause of disease burden by 2030, already holding this position for women worldwide. Between 1990 and 2010, Canada saw a 75% increase in disability-adjusted life years due to major depression, second only to Alzheimer’s disease, while the increase in the U.S. was 43%. The female-to-male ratio of global disability from major depression has remained at 1.7:1. While socioeconomic factors such as abuse, education, and income may influence the higher rate of depression in women, this article focuses on biological contributors to this disparity.
The prevalence of major depression is higher in women than in men. In 2010, the global annual prevalence was 5.5% for women and 3.2% for men, a 1.7-fold difference. In Canada, the prevalence in 2002 was 5.0% for women and 2.9% for men, increasing to 5.8% and 3.6% respectively by 2012. These similar ratios across developed countries suggest that the differential risk is mainly due to biological sex differences rather than social or economic factors. The rate of depression does not appear higher in countries where women have significantly lower socioeconomic status than men. Depression is more than twice as prevalent in young women (ages 14–25) than in men, but this ratio decreases with age. Before puberty, boys and girls have similar depression rates, which decline after age 65, becoming similar between genders. This higher prevalence in women is also reflected in the prescription rates of antidepressants, with women in Canada being prescribed these medications more than twice as often as men. The delay in antidepressant treatment for young adults may contribute to higher depression rates in adolescence and young adulthood.
Depression triggers differ between genders, with women more often experiencing internalizing symptoms and men externalizing symptoms. Studies of dizygotic twins suggest women are more sensitive to interpersonal relationships while men are more sensitive to external career and goal-oriented factors. Women also face specific forms of depression-related illnesses linked to hormonal changes, such as premenstrual dysphoric disorder, postpartum depression, and postmenopausal depression and anxiety. This suggests that hormonal fluctuations, particularly estrogen, may trigger depression in women. However, most preclinical studies focus on males to avoid behavioural variability related to the menstrual cycle. Additionally research on primates has shown that social stress can lead to depression-like symptoms and changes in the serotonin system and hippocampal volume, more pronounced in postmenopausal than ovarian-intact monkeys. Furthermore, hormone replacement therapy during perimenopause has shown promise in preventing postmenopausal depression. Studies indicate that oral contraceptive use may reduce depression and anxiety, suggesting that moderating estrogen cycling could be protective.
Despite the lack of systemic estrogen, men have lower depression rates, possibly due to the conversion of testosterone to estrogen in the male brain, providing consistent protection. Men also have androgen receptors that may offer additional protection. These hormonal and developmental differences in brain circuitry contribute to the lower prevalence of depression in men.
The fundamental genetic differences between men and women, such as the presence of X and Y chromosomes, contribute to the differing depression rates. Societal factors likely have a biological basis, yet even with improving social equality, the female-to-male depression ratio remains unchanged. Biological factors, particularly fluctuations in ovarian hormones and decreases in estrogen, appear to significantly contribute to the higher prevalence of depression in women. Developing treatments that target these biological factors could help mitigate this disparity.
References
Whiteford, H. A., Degenhardt, L., Rehm, J., Baxter, A. J., Ferrari, A. J., Erskine, H. E., Charlson, F. J., Norman, R. E., Flaxman, A. D., Johns, N., Burstein, R., Murray, C. J., & Vos, T. (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet, 382(9904), 1575–1586. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61611-6
Ford, D. E., & Erlinger, T. P. (2004). Depression and C-Reactive protein in US adults. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164(9), 1010. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.9.1010
According to the United Nations Population Fund, more than 690,000 menstruating women and girls in Gaza have limited access to menstrual hygiene products [1]. The ongoing conflict, rooted in the over-expansion of Israeli occupation, has severely impacted gender equality. War intensifies societal issues, and the rampant human rights violations uniquely affects Palestinian women.
Before the recent escalation of tensions on October 7th, 2023, Palestine existed in a state of apartheid, similar to South Africa’s historical situation. To gain support for the World War I effort, the UK supported the creation of the State of Israel. Over time, legislative power shifted towards the Jewish immigrants, and the State of Israel was officially established on May 14th, 1948. This creation displaced many Palestinians, forcing them into a much smaller territory. As Israel expanded, Palestinians were further displaced from their homes, particularly along the coastline. The most recent land loss for Palestine occurred on March 26, 2024, when Palestinians were forced to flee 2,000 acres of land. Racial inequality and discrimination have become a common reality for Palestinians, who are unable to return to their ancestral lands taken after the creation of Israel.
A far-right government led by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu came into power at the end of 2022 and escalated the violence. In 2023 alone, more than 199 Palestinians were killed as a result of Netanyahu’s government’s actions, and perpetrators of mob violence against Palestinians have rarely faced justice. After October 7th, the war ravaged the Palestinian state, with civilians caught in the crossfire of a $12.8 billion US-funded military. As infrastructure and roads became blocked by rubble, supply lines to towns and cities were cut off, leading to more casualties. The major displacement of Palestinians into areas deemed safe by Israelis did not protect them from the relentless bombings. Palestinian civilians are defenseless, and their rights have been ignored far longer than October 7th. Furthermore, women’s rights have been increasingly suppressed under the new siege.
There are currently about 50,000 pregnant women in Gaza, and with only 16 out of the 48 Palestinian Hospitals being partially operational, these are all high-risk pregnancies. Major aid blockades have led to the delay or end of medical supplies deliveries including anesthesia, bandages, and sterile attire to prevent infection. Women in Gaza do not have menstrual products either, which has forced them to look for other alternatives. Torn cloth from refugee tents has become a solution for many, and this is a major risk for infection. Yasmeen Ahmad, a physician at the Nasser Hospital maternity ward told Bisan Ouda in a video for the women’s collective,
NO2TA, that they encounter numerous instances of fever directly linked to vaginal yeast infections arising from inadequate hygiene and the absence of feminine hygiene products.
The Independent Commissions Council, established by the United Nations Human rights Council has declared that Israel committed war crimes, crimes against humanity and violations of international humanitarian and human rights law [2]. The UN has called for an immediate end to the bombardment of Palestine, and for reparations to be paid for the loss of homes and life.
The siege on Gaza remains a critical issue as Israel faces major scrutiny for human rights violations and their display of indifference. The headlines about Gaza’s losses offer a glimpse into the reality its residents have faced since the start of the Israeli occupation. On account of social media platforms like TikTok and X, unbiased video evidence of Israeli leaders fueling propaganda to justify their murders and exposing their genocidal intentions. As a result, global awareness of the unjust actions of the Israeli nation has increased, sparking protests in major cities like Paris, London, and New York City.
You can support the citizens caught in the crossfire between the two nations by donating or raising awareness about the ongoing human rights violations. The time to act is now, as every passing moment leads to more innocent lives lost in this tragic conflict.
References:
[1] The Women’s Health Crisis in Gaza – Gisha. Gisha. (2024, January 28). https://gisha.org/en/the-womens-health-crisis-in-gaza Women and girls in Gaza: Bombarded, displaced and left without health care. European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations. (4AD).
https://civil-protection-humanitarian-aid.ec.europa.eu/news-stories/stories/women-and-girls-gaza -bombarded-displaced-and-left-without-health-care_en Wright, E., Alrifai, T., & Pires, R. (2023, November 3). Women and newborns bearing the brunt of the conflict in Gaza, UN agencies warn. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/03-11-2023-women-and-newborns-bearing-the-brunt-of-the-conf lict-in-gaza-un-agencies-warn
[2] United Nations. (2024, June 12). Gaza: Hamas, Israel committed war crimes, claims independent rights probe | UN news. United Nations.
It’s common knowledge that members within the LGTBQ+ community are locked into a constant fight against discrimination, violence, and bigotry. Yet, one subgroup of the community has a higher proximity to these dangers than most: bisexual women.
Indeed, numerous studies give us a glimpse into the disparities. In comparison to their lesbian and heterosexual counterparts, bisexual women have higher rates of “rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner,” reaching a startling 61 percent of the bisexual women documented.[2] Furthermore, the Bisexual Resource Center indicates bisexual women “are less likely to be out” compared to lesbian women, and have a higher risk of mental disorders such as depression and anxiety.[2] It’s abundantly clear that bisexual women are not receiving the support they need. The reasons are rooted in a plethora of factors, but there are a prominent few that pose the biggest threats to bisexual women’s well-being.
Society is largely catered toward rigid binaries and monosexuality (male/female, straight/gay), meaning plural attraction is largely misunderstood and unaccepted.[5] Bisexual women are often told that they are confused, and they either engage in same-sex activities because it’s a “phase” or that they are “secretly gay.”[4] Essentially, everyone sees their dating life as an “either/or” situation. If a bisexual woman is with a man, she’s straight. If a bisexual woman is with a woman, she’s a lesbian. Thus, a bisexual woman feels immense pressure to “be gay or straight enough,” or her sexuality is, in the eyes of others, a fad.[4] This might result in her engaging in frequent, unsafe sexual activity to “prove herself,” or choosing to never come out to prevent constant questioning about her sexuality.[5] Both options undoubtedly jeopardize her health, both physically and mentally.
A Long History of Fetishism
Hypersexualism is a long-standing stereotype of bisexuals: they are greedy and will “sleep with anyone,” leading to constant exploitation of bisexuals as a sexual fetish.[1]In particular, heterosexual men are notorious for eroticizing bisexual women—they are “performing” for these men, but are still “sexually available” to them[4]. However, their enjoyment is not flattering to bisexual women. It conveys the dangerous notion that bisexual women don’t pursue women romantically for themselves but for the pleasure of men. As a result, the skepticism and disgust towards bisexual women only increases across communities.
Biphobia in the LGBTQ+ Community
It’s not as simple as it seems for bisexual women to look to the queer community for support—not when they have a history of perpetuating biphobia themselves. In online communities, bisexual women often post about the lack of acceptance and stereotypes in the queer community, highling not just the loneliness they feel, but the shock they feel that fellow LGBTQ+ members would perpetuate biphobic behavior.[1]
Robyn Ochs, a bisexual woman and author, says, “Gay and lesbian identified individuals frequently view [bisexuals] as possessing a degree of privilege not available to them.”[3] The impact of this belief is prominent, particularly in lesbian spaces (Heinze, 2021). Lesbians are notorious for rejecting bisexual women as romantic partners because they appear untrustworthy (they will leave them for a man), incapable of monogamy, and are “sleeping with the enemy.”[3] It’s true that bisexual women can marry a man, thereby avoiding homophobic violence, but conditional acceptance and suppressing their sexuality is not acceptance. It’s not a privilege. It’s a cage.
Reclaiming Their Identity
Bisexual women have long had their identity mischaracterized, slandered, and defined by both queer and straight folk alike. They seldom had little opportunity to construct their identities for themselves. When we allow bisexual women the chance to speak candidly, stop anti-bisexual discrimination, and champion equality, they can feel ownership of their identity.
“My sexual orientation is not a choice,” Joellyn Wilken Weingourt from The Equality Federation, an LGBTQ+ advocacy organization, says. “I am a cisgender woman, somewhere in my 40s, I have a husband and a child. And I am proud to be bisexual. I am proud of my past and my present. I am excited about my out and proud future.”[3]
References
[1] Heinze, JL. (2021). Bi+ Issues in Society. National Sexual Violence Resource Center. https://www.nsvrc.org/blogs/Bi-phobia-series/bi-issues
[3] Kincaid, Laken. (2021). Biphobia and Acceptance in the LGBT Community. The Carroll News.
[4] Wells, Sian. (2021). Stop Fetishizing Bi Women, Our Sexuality Is Not For You. Her Campus. https://www.hercampus.com/school/nottingham/stop-fetishizing-bi-women-bi-erasure-amongst-s tudents/
[5] York, Thomas. (2021). ‘People erase my existence.’ The British Psychological Society. https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/people-erase-my-existence
Periods. The natural bodily function experienced by half of our world’s population.[9] Yet, why does the word “period” itself evoke such a sense of discomfort and embarrassment in many? From old wives’ tales to misguided beliefs, periods have continued to be misunderstood and misrepresented. It’s time to set the record straight and separate fact from fiction.
Myth #1: Menstruation is Dirty
Probably the most pervasive myths about periods is that they are unclean and dirty. The idea that menstruation is impure can be traced back to ancient cultural and religious beliefs.[6] In many cultures, menstruating individuals have been isolated or excluded from certain activities under the notion that they are contaminated and will bring bad luck.[6]
Menstruation is not dirty. As mentioned previously, the process is a natural bodily function, similar to sweating or urination. Period blood is not toxic or harmful either. It is simply the body’s way of shedding its uterine lining, which is necessary in restoring its reproductive health.[2] And in reality, proper hygiene practices, such as using menstrual products and regularly changing them are sufficient enough to maintain cleanliness during one’s cycle.
Myth #2: Women Should Avoid Physical Activity During Their Periods
Many believe that women should avoid exercise or physical activity while menstruating, thinking that physical exercise could worsen menstrual symptoms and cause harm. However, in reality, moderate exercise can actually alleviate symptoms such as cramps, bloating, and mood swings by increasing blood flow and releasing endorphins (i.e. the body’s painkillers).[5]So while it’s important to listen to one’s body and not overdo it, regular physical activity can actually be beneficial during menstruation and often prove to be more advantageous than not.
Myth #3: You Can’t Get Pregnant During Your Period
Another common myth is that women cannot conceive while on their period. While the chances of getting pregnant during menstruation are lower, it is still possible, particularly for women with shorter menstrual cycles.[8] Sperm can live inside the female body for up to five days, and if a woman ovulates soon after her period, conception can occur.[7] Therefore, contraception should still be used if pregnancy is not desired.
Myth #4: Menstrual Blood is Different from Regular Blood
No, menstrual blood is not different from regular blood. Rather, menstrual blood is the same as regular blood, with some added components. It contains the same elements as the blood that circulates through the body—red and white blood cells, and plasma.[1] However, menstrual blood also includes endometrial tissue and cervical mucus, which gives it a thicker consistency and can sometimes cause it to appear darker or have clots.[4]
Myth #5: Tampons Can Get Lost Inside You
There is a common fear that tampons can get lost inside the body, causing many to be reluctant to use tampons. However, the reality is quite different.
Tampons are designed with a string attached to the end precisely to prevent them from getting lost. The cervix, which is the opening to the uterus,[3] is too small for a tampon to pass through. The cervix ensures that tampons stay in the vaginal canal and do not enter the uterus or other parts of the body.
Conclusion
It’s about time we normalize conversations about menstruation and educate society about its importance. They are a normal and essential part of life for many people, and they deserve to be discussed openly and without shame. Period.
[6] Khan, S., Ali, S. A., Siddiqui, M. F., Shinwari, Z. K., & Afzal, B. (2019). Estimation of healthcare waste generation in different hospitals of Karachi, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7732-4
[9] Zerbo, O., Bell, G., Lee, H. C., Mangurian, C., & Crown, L. A. (2023). Maternal mental health conditions during and after pregnancy and the risk of autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A population-based cohort study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05770-8
The current state of women in politics is an important issue that continues to evolve through generations. While we have come a long way from gaining the right to vote, much must be done to achieve gender equality in democracy. The number of women holding political office has increased in many countries over time. However, significant disparities regarding access to power and decision-making roles are still barricades in the political careers of many aspiring women.
In addition, representing women in politics is important for many reasons. Women’s unique perspectives and experiences can be considered when forming policies and making decisions. This can lead to more equitable and inclusive governance that better reflects the needs and interests of the entire population. Having more women in government can inspire future generations of women leaders, encouraging greater diversity and gender equality in leadership positions.
Throughout history, many prominent figures and movements have fought for gender equality in democracy. For example, The Women’s Suffrage movement was influenced by the publication of the Declaration of Independence: “Although the Declaration of Independence specifies that ‘all men are created equal,’ its publication sowed the seeds the seeds for the women’s suffrage movement in the United States”[4]. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, denied participation in an 1840 conference in London due to being female, were inspired to work together by this rebuff.
In 1916, Jeanette Rankin was the first woman elected to Congress, representing Montana. Rankin “helped destroy negative public attitudes about women as members of Congress”[1]. Agreeing with a colleague’s famous comment, “I’m no lady. I’m a member of Congress,” Rankin displayed tenacity and individuality, aiding her in improving societal views on the political standards of women.
Barriers to Entry
According to the Pew Research Center, “More than four-in-ten point to gender discrimination (47%), women getting less support from party leaders (47%), many Americans not being ready
to elect a woman to higher office (46%), and family responsibilities (44%) as major obstacles for women in politics” [2]. The population of women who participate in the political field is low due to how society is conservative about a woman’s place because more obstacles than a lack of interest prevent many from advancing in the field.
Throughout history, many have adjusted to the societal norms that separate the two genders. Centuries ago, women were given the title of homemaker, meaning they were expected to take care of household chores and raise children. Women were also required to display a distinct elegance, often interpreted as timid or weak for many generations. It was in the 20th century that there came big changes in societal expectations for women. However, there are still some glass ceilings we as a generation are still fighting to overcome. Politics has been inversely characterized as rough and argumentative, and those who continue to hold conservative beliefs maintain women’s involvement as inappropriate and even unnatural.
Women in politics face numerous societal, cultural, and institutional barriers. For example, the lack of support and encouragement for women to pursue political careers is scarily low. According to the Pew Research Center, “About a third (34%) say women aren’t encouraged to be leaders from an early age and 23% say not as many women are interested in holding higher office”[2]. In addition, some discriminatory laws and policies disadvantage women in the political arena. In only 67 out of 173 countries, there are laws in place that are against gender discrimination in hiring practices[6], which probably includes the political field. These barriers contribute to the persistent gender gap in political representation and influence, and addressing them is crucial for achieving gender equality in politics.
Ultimately, embracing diversity in political leadership leads to more inclusive policies and better reflects the needs of society as a whole. Through politics, women can feel empowered and gain further support for gender equality. Actively working towards breaking down barriers that prevent women from fully participating in political decision-making, and providing insight and advice on the political field to aspiring woman politicians, can aid in creating a more equitable and representative political landscape.
References:
[1] Jeannette Rankin. U.S. Senate: Jeannette Rankin. (2023, August 7). https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/electing-appointing-senators/jeannette-rankin senate-campaign.htm#:~:text=No%20history%20of%20American%20representative,singular%2 0event%20occurred%20in%201916.
[2]Pew Research Center. (2023, September 25). More than half of Americans point to women having to do more to prove themselves as a major obstacle for women seeking high political office. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2023/09/27/views-of-obstacles-for-women-seeking-hi gh-political-office/st_2023-09-27_women-leaders-politics_2-01-png/
[4]Voting rights for women: The right to vote: Elections: Classroom materials at the Library of Congress: Library of Congress. The Library of Congress. (n.d.). https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/elections/right-to-vote/voting-rights-for-women/
[6]Women, U. (n.d.). Women in the changing world of work – Facts you should know. https://interactive.unwomen.org/multimedia/infographic/changingworldofwork/en/index.html
Nourishing the Journey: The Vital Role of Good Nutrition During Pregnancy
Pooja Bhavsar
June 2024
Pregnancy is a transformative period in a woman’s life. The excitement that comes with the journey is unparalleled, an astonishing experience for everyone involved. In the miscellany of all of these emotions, good nutrition can easily be overlooked. It has recently been discovered the vitality of good nutrition during this time and how a lack of nourishment can undermine the health of the baby.
In some underprivileged countries, women’s diets are lacking in main food groups, like dairy and legumes. Since the pandemic, malnutrition in adolescent girls and women has skyrocketed by twenty-five percent, from 5.5 million to 6.9 million.[1] Malnutrition has severe effects when only one individual is dependent on the body’s nourishment. When two are reliant, the response can be detrimental. Malnutrition can lead to an increased risk in neonatal death, which is defined by the death of a live-born infant within the first 28 completed days of life.[1] It can also impair fetal development with lifelong consequences for children’s nutrition and growth.[1] However, these are just the effects on the baby. The effects on the mother are just as dangerous.
Vitamins are key in any diet. From iron to calcium, these nutrients are building blocks for exceptional health. Poor diet during pregnancy is represented with reduced levels of necessary vitamins, like iodine, iron, folate, calcium and zinc.[2] This can often lead to anemia, preeclampsia, hypertension and more.[2] Disease is a less harsh repercussion of this loss. Malnourishment leads to double the chances of maternal mortality.[2] There are many elements when thinking about malnutrition in pregnant women like a lack of resources, prior health detriments and furthermore. These factors are out of one’s control and are not at all the fault of the mother . There are few and far between programs to help mothers sustain themselves and to aid with good maternal nutrition. It is vital for the health of children and women globally that there are more of these programs instituted as the malnourishment crisis continues to grow.
We see the harms of malnutrition. But what can a good diet do for mothers and their babies? A well-balanced diet, rich in legumes, proteins, grains and healthy fats aid the immune system and reduce inflammation.[4] Physiological changes and stressors can be a lot for women to bear during pregnancy, however this benefit makes it easier for them to cope with the adaptations. It also helps regulate blood glucose, weight fluctuations etc.[4] Good nutrition can aid a pregnancy tremendously, making the process easier and less stressful for mothers.
Maintaining good nutrition during pregnancy has a few requirements. Eating nutrient-dense foods, smaller meals, staying hydrated and limiting processed food can ensure mothers getting the key nutrients to keep them and their babies healthy.[3] If available, consulting with a healthcare provider or dietician is always a beneficial way of ensuring that your diet is in check.
By eating healthily, pregnant women can enhance the health of themselves and their children. Empowering expectant mothers with the knowledge and resources to make informed dietary choices goes hand in hand in promoting positive birth outcomes and ensuring a healthy start for both mother and baby.
References
[1] Malnutrition in mothers soars by 25 per cent in crisis-hit countries, putting women and newborn babies at risk. UNICEF. (n.d.). https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/malnutrition-mothers-soars-25-cent-crisis-hit-countries-putting-women-and-newborn
[2] Marshall, N. E., Abrams, B., Barbour, L. A., Catalano, P., Christian, P., Friedman, J. E., Hay, W. W., Hernandez, T. L., Krebs, N. F., Oken, E., Purnell, J. Q., Roberts, J. M., Soltani, H., Wallace, J., & Thornburg, K. L. (2022, May). The importance of nutrition in pregnancy and lactation: Lifelong consequences. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9182711/
[3] Nutrition during pregnancy. Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2019, November 19). https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/nutrition-during-pregnancy [4] Shenoy, S., Sharma, P., Rao, A., Aparna, N., Adenikinju, D., Iloegbu, C., Pateña, J., Vieira, D., Gyamfi, J., & Peprah, E. (2023, October 25). Evidence-based interventions to reduce maternal malnutrition in low and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Frontiers in health services. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10634505/#:~:text=Shockingly%2C%20malnourished%20women%20face%20a,in%202020%20occurred%20within%20LMICs.
About every two minutes, a maternal death occurred in the year 2020, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).[5] Maternal mortality is a critical global health issue that takes away numerous women’s lives around the world. Data from 2020 reveals that around 95% of all maternal deaths happened in low and lower-middle-income countries, most of which could have been prevented.[5] Since maternal mortality causes so many deaths worldwide, it is important to unravel the intricacies and be aware of diverse outcomes, factors, and prevention strategies that can influence maternal mortality and save women’s lives.
Maternal mortality is an essential concern to be aware of not only because it takes away so many women’s lives, but it can also directly affect the life course of infants born to mothers who have passed away during and after childbirth. For instance, the infants may not be able to be breastfed and receive the health benefits of breastfeeding as well as lack a maternal figure in their lives. Moreover, the death of a woman during pregnancy or childbirth can drastically affect the lives of her other loved ones. For example, research has found that among previous children of mothers who have died during or after the subsequent pregnancy, their mental health and emotional well-being can be significantly impacted. This, in turn, can also make it more difficult for them to concentrate on academics,[6] especially when they mourn and grieve the loss of their mother. By the same token, some men who have lost their wives to maternal mortality can be at risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder.[6] Maternal death can also bring up concerns about additional child caregiving responsibilities and financial worries[6] among men whose wives have passed away during pregnancy or childbirth. Therefore, along with posing a threat to women’s lives, maternal mortality can affect men and children to some degree, which is why it is such an important global health concern.
Throughout pregnancy and childbirth, several complications can arise, some of which can lead to maternal mortality. The most common complications leading to maternal mortality include severe bleeding, infections, high blood pressure, and complications from delivery, as well as unsafe abortions.[5]In order to effectively mitigate such complications as well as other biological and physical health factors leading to maternal mortality, proper medical facilities with trained healthcare workers, medical supplies, access to pharmaceutical drugs, and sanitary services are essential. Women’s lives can also be saved by addressing complications in a time-efficient manner. For example, although a woman experiencing severe bleeding after childbirth can die within hours, medical professionals can help reduce the risk by immediately administering oxytocics after childbirth.[5] Moreover, the WHO suggests that maternal deaths linked to unsafe abortion can be reduced by providing access to safe abortion services and post-abortion care. Additionally, ensuring access to contraception can help address maternal mortality, by preventing unintended pregnancies.[5] Furthermore, women who are pregnant[4] or planning on becoming pregnant[2] should maintain healthy lifestyles and regularly monitor their health and wellness. Women should be encouraged to continue positive health behaviors, such as eating nutritious food, and eliminate behaviors that can pose a threat to their or their infant’s life, such as substance use.[2]
Maternal mortality can be complex especially since along with the biological and physical health aspects that can lead to it, numerous and diverse socio-cultural factors can influence it. For instance, in societies where women are considered inferior to men, women’s dietary needs are often ignored. Interestingly, in some cultures, traditionally, the women in a family are able to start eating only after the men and children in the family have finished their meals, as opposed to all members of the family eating together at the same time. Some women cannot access adequate and nutritious food, which is necessary during pregnancy and after childbirth to safeguard their health and prevent complications.[3] Additionally, exposure to stress and traumatic experiences, including violence, can affect maternal health and well-being. For example, research has shown that intimate partner violence can significantly increase the risk of maternal mortality, especially since it can increase the risk of developing complications such as preterm labor.[1] Furthermore, since pregnancy and childbirth are so common and natural, women often get ignored or dismissed when they share concerns about them. Research found that especially in societies where pregnant women lack autonomy and mobility, their in-laws decide whether it is worth seeking healthcare, based on components such as the perceived severity of concern, the nature of the threat, and healthcare cost. Many families doubt why they should spend a lot of money on medical facilities when women have given birth in their own homes throughout generations.[3] As a result, oftentimes, pregnant women are brought to medical facilities when it is too late and they are nearing death due to complications.[3]
Although pregnancy and childbirth are natural processes that countless women have undergone throughout history for the creation of new lives, it is important to be aware of the diverse factors surrounding maternal mortality and continue advocating for maternal health. Researchers acknowledge that governmental efforts have been made to help provide access to healthcare and basic needs including food, as well as advocating for women’s education and economic empowerment. Nonetheless, awareness[3] of maternal health should be further raised to promote health literacy and prevent adverse outcomes associated with delays in seeking medical care and complications. Awareness of maternal health should be spread in comprehensive ways and include essential information about the significance of nutritious food, the importance of seeking timely medical care, and effectively caring for women before and after childbirth. The WHO also recognizes the importance of remembering that the health of a pregnant woman directly affects the health and life of both her and her newborn.[5] Therefore, pregnant women as well as women in the postpartum period should be attentively and responsibly monitored, supported, cared for, and empowered.
References
[1] Agarwal, S., Prasad, R., Mantri, S., Chandrakar, R., Gupta, S., Babhulkar, V., Srivastav, S., Jaiswal, A., & Wanjari, M. B. (2023). A Comprehensive Review of Intimate Partner Violence During Pregnancy and Its Adverse Effects on Maternal and Fetal Health. Cureus, 15(5), e39262. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.39262
[2] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, April 26). Preventing Pregnancy-Related Deaths. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternal-mortality/preventing-pregnancy-related-deaths .html#:~:text=Many%20factors%20influence%20pregnancy-related,health%20problems%20bef ore%20getting%20pregnant.
[4] Stickler, T. (2020, July 9). Maintaining a Healthy Pregnancy. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/healthy-pregnancy
[5] World Health Organization. (2023, February 22). Maternal mortality. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality
[6] Zhou, H., Zhang, L., Ye, F., Wang, H. J., Huntington, D., Huang, Y., Wang, A., Liu, S., & Wang, Y. (2016). The Effect of Maternal Death on the Health of the Husband and Children in a Rural Area of China: A Prospective Cohort Study. PloS one, 11(6), e0157122. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157122
A woman may just be on her way to work, but with each step she takes she navigates through a minefield of double standards. This woman and countless others go through similar experiences of these ridiculous expectations and treatment compared to their male counterparts, as if they’re walking on eggshells. Double standards are far from unknown, and women have protested against them repeatedly; however, many do not know that they are still present.
The gender pay gap started back around the 1800s when it was finally common for women to work; the University of Missouri states in 1840-1841, men were paid $33.81 per month while women were paid 21 dollars less.[2] This only devalues the time and effort women now put in, as it shows how they are not appreciated with the jarring contrast in wages. Unfortunately, this still continues now, multiple studies have shown that women are paid only 84% of what men are paid, and this is also dependent on their race with Black and Hispanic women getting paid less than men of the same race.[3]
While walking the streets, women find themselves being cautious to avoid the degrading experience of catcalling, where a stranger makes inappropriate or suggestive comments about their appearance. Despite it being a clear form of harassment, women are expected to tolerate such behavior and are mocked for speaking out against it. The normalization of this not only violates a woman’s dignity but also contributes to other women’s feelings of discomfort and fear.
These double standards also exist in parenting, beginning with the expectation that women should stay at home with the kids. Meanwhile, fathers pay no attention. These ideas continue to influence present-day norms for the division of domestic labor. While mothers have the majority of childcare responsibilities, fathers are praised for performing even the most basic tasks. To add on, when fathers take care of their kids, others will call it “babysitting.” This can be infuriating for both parents as the father is just carrying out his responsibilities while everyone expects the mother to go above and beyond with childcare, sometimes ridiculing her if she gets “lazy.” This only places a burden on women and hinders the importance of fatherhood.[1]
Besides the expectations of parents, double standards even affect how parents treat their children; it is often shown that fathers are way more protective and strict with their daughters, giving them early curfews, forbidding them from dating, monitoring the clothes they wear, and more. Even my father brings up the idea of me having children in the future, even though I’m not fond of kids. I notice that these comments are not directed at my brother, only mentioning that he’ll find a nice woman in the future. Fortunately, my father is not as strict with me on other matters, like curfews and diet, but he certainly treats me differently from my brother, though this is affected by age as well.
In the midst of all of this, women feel pressured to fit into unrealistic beauty standards. For instance, having a shaved body has been very normalized in women. Many times in public I’ve made sure my underarm hair wasn’t showing in fear of dirty looks and judgment, a concern not present in the minds of men. Additionally, women face criticism and harsh comments for exhibiting characteristics considered to be “manly” such as having body hair or a smaller chest. A study from the National Library of Medicine says, “The results indicate that men devalue non-ideal bodies and upvalue ideal bodies when they are self-related, whereas women rate in a fair-minded manner. Thus, in contrast to women, an advantage for men may be that they can self-enhance in the case of desirable bodies.”[4] In simpler terms, this talks about how men tend to devalue bodies that don’t match their ideal standards to boost their confidence; on the other hand, women judge bodies overall regardless of whether they match; possibly because of the many beauty standards pushed onto them.
Noticing these situations in my day-to-day life has proven that these double standards have never disappeared and have been integrated into our culture and minds such that many don’t notice. In fact, women now hold men to high standards of being their partners, some more reasonable than others such as simply treating them with respect since it’s not shown as often. Either way, we need an environment where all individuals, regardless of gender, can thrive and flourish, and release ourselves from double standards.
References
[1] Ciletti, N. (2024, April 3). Gendered Double Standards In Parenting: Five Strategies To Help Promote Fairness. BetterHelp. Retrieved April 29, 2024, from https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/parenting/gendered-double-standards-in-parenting-5-strategies-to-help-promote-fairness/
[2] 1840-1849 – Prices and Wages by Decade. (2024, April 4). Library Guides. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1840-1849
[3] George, E., & Livingston, G. (2024, March 12). What You Need to Know About the Gender Wage Gap. DOL Blog. Retrieved April 7, 2024, from https://blog.dol.gov/2024/03/12/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-gender-wage-gap
[4] Giving a Body a Different Face—How Men and Women Evaluate Their Own Body vs. That of Others. (2022, May 2). NCBI. Retrieved April 7, 2024, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9108869/
Silent Killers: The Lethal Consequences of Health Misinformation
Roma Bhavsar April 2024
What is Misinformation?
Misinformation is defined as information that is inaccurate, misleading, or false and deliberately intended to deceive.[1,2] According to the current Surgeon General of the United States, Dr. Vivek Murthy, “health misinformation is a serious threat to public health. It can cause confusion, sow mistrust, harm people’s health, and undermine public health efforts.” A dire consequence of health misinformation can lead individuals to decline vaccines or essential medicines, ignore public health measures, and consume unproven treatments that pose potential harm when ingested.[2]
Navigating Reliable Sources in the Social Media Era
In the past decade, an increasing number of people began to rely on social media for their news. Although convenient, accessing information online poses significant challenges because not all content is reliable, leading to the rapid spread of misinformation.
One of the biggest ways to avoid getting wrong information is to make sure you are getting facts from credible, reputable, and cited sources. From a health perspective, this could be a peer-reviewed medical journal (The New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, etc.) or educational website (.gov and .edu), a health organization such as Mayo Clinic, or a reputable online newspaper.[3] Misinformation is detrimental to society and can lead to increased fatalities and exacerbated public health crises; ultimately endangering the lives of our loved ones and people within our communities.
Identifying the most vulnerable individuals to misinformation allows for targeted allocation of resources and attention to those who are most susceptible. Certain demographics, including the elderly, young individuals, frequent social media users, and those with limited formal education, are particularly vulnerable to misinformation. Additionally, individuals with strong political affiliations are more inclined to believe information aligning with their existing biases, especially when it originates from trusted sources. This highlights the critical concern surrounding the dissemination of misinformation among susceptible populations.[4]
Decreasing the Burden of Misinformation
Unfortunately, the vast amount of healthcare misinformation has significantly influenced how and where people look to consume information, often leading to a lack of verification of its authenticity.
There are numerous solutions to mitigate the impact of misinformation. A collaborative approach involving governments, health entities, technology firms, social media, and the public is essential. Governments must rebuild trust by delivering clear, frequent messages and demonstrating transparency in decision-making processes. Identifying vulnerable populations and factors contributing to susceptibility is crucial for targeted interventions. Governments should collaborate with health organizations to create platforms that easily disseminate evidence based information. Social media companies need to enhance surveillance of their platforms and create frameworks for removing false data. Phone apps providing up-to-date scientific data and government recommendations can help combat misinformation effectively.[3] Lastly, creating awareness campaigns, implementing legal policies, and enhancing health literacy are additional strategies that can be executed.[1]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, it was evident that healthcare misinformation had significantly influenced public behavior. Social media was a driving force in misinformation spreading and a way to mitigate this risk is increased monitoring of websites to remove incorrect information, using algorithms and software to comb through and fact check data, and working more closely with evidence-based, peer-reviewed medical journals.[3]
What Does This All Mean?
Misinformation about the COVID-19 virus’s spread has made people less cautious in recent years. Moreover, doubts about vaccine safety, fueled by false claims, have led to widespread hesitancy. This highlights the need for trustworthy health information and vigilant monitoring of social media. To tackle this “infodemic,” collaboration among governments, scientists, social media companies, and community organizations is vital.[3]
Those who share information publicly, particularly healthcare professionals who are seen as scientific subject matter experts, have a moral duty to ensure the information they share is sourced from reputable sources. Given their influence, their words can profoundly shape public perception and behavior.[4]
Enhancing the quality of health information we consume has widespread benefits, enabling us to make informed decisions for ourselves, our families, and our communities while mitigating the spread of misinformation.[2]
References
[1] World Health Organization. (2022, September 1). Infodemics and Misinformation Negatively Affect People’s Health Behaviours. www.who.int.
[2] Health Misinformation — Current Priorities of the U.S. Surgeon General. (n.d.). www.hhs.gov. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/priorities/health
misinformation/index.html#understand
[3] Ferreira Caceres, M. M., Sosa, J. P., Lawrence, J. A., Sestacovschi, C., Tidd-Johnson, A., Rasool, M. H. U., Gadamidi, V. K., Ozair, S., Pandav, K., Cuevas-Lou, C., Parrish, M., Rodriguez, I., & Fernandez, J. P. (2022). The Impact of Misinformation on the COVID-19 Pandemic. AIMS Public Health, 9(2), 262–277. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2022018
Whether this is the first time you are hearing about polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or not, the name of this disorder may mislead you into thinking that it is caused explicitly by having several ovarian cysts, but that is not entirely true[12]. The National Library of Medicine defines PCOS as an endocrine disorder that involves having two or more of these three determining factors: irregular menses, hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries[3,6]. Currently, the cause of PCOS in women of reproductive ages (18-40 years old) is still unknown[3,4]. But, scientists believe that perhaps hereditary genes, environmental factors, hormonal imbalances, and/or insulin resistance may play a role in developing PCOS[3,4]. Since there is no known cure, the disorder is currently being managed via medications and lifestyle modifications in an attempt to alleviate its symptoms[3,14,15].
PCOS is accompanied by several unpleasant symptoms such as weight gain, pelvic pain, headaches, acne, edema, decreased libido, mood swings, etc [9,14,15]. PCOS significantly affects a woman’s quality of life as it is one of the leading causes of infertility[11,14,15]. Various combinations of the three previously mentioned PCOS factors can cause an overexpression of androgens, such as testosterone[4,15]. This can prohibit ovulation, and therefore fertilization, from occurring[4,15]. Infertility can also cause major psychological distress as becoming a mother is a future many women look forward to[15]. Not only does this affect the PCOS patient, but it can affect the relationship with their partner and/or family members[15]. This can cause feelings of unworthiness, guilt, and barrenness which may lead to anxiety and depression[11]. Couples battling PCOS-related infertility may try certain medications and/or fertility treatments in order to achieve stable hormone levels and increase their chances of egg fertilization. This can be a time-consuming and mentally draining process as one’s rate of success with these methods is not always guaranteed[10,11].
The aforementioned high levels of testosterone and other androgenic hormones frequently lead to hirsutism in women suffering with PCOS[4,15]. This condition causes excessive hair growth on parts of the body such as the face, chest, legs, back, or arms[4,15,16]. It can be a debilitating condition, especially for young women, who are often judged by others, and made to feel abnormal, ashamed, and less feminine[4,15,16]. Although there are hair reduction options, removing the hair professionally usually takes multiple sessions in order to see results and the process can be painful[16]. Not only does this require time and money, but keeping the condition hidden is stressful as well[15,16]. In summary, living with PCOS can cause women to feel social stigma, anxiety, and depression, they may also create a negative body image of themselves[13].
Diagnostic Dilemma
Despite PCOS being deemed a medical disorder over 100 years ago, up to 70% of affected women remain undiagnosed worldwide[1,2,7]. But, why is that? Physicians face a challenge when it comes to diagnosing PCOS because of one thing: the symptoms. PCOS can present itself through many symptoms that overlap and mimic what you would commonly find in other diseases such as pelvic inflammatory disease, thyroid disease, diabetes, etc[5,7,8]. Therefore, physicians request certain lab tests to be conducted and from their results, they eliminate other similar diseases; it could take several months or years for a true PCOS diagnosis to be reached[1]. This period of time where the patient is waiting to be diagnosed could potentially allow other harmful, long-term complications associated with PCOS to develop such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM-2), depression, endometrial cancer, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease[1,8,15]. On a similar note, PCOS has also been found to increase one’s risk of heart disease and metabolic disorders. Recently, scientists have also discovered that it may also increase one’s risk of memory loss[2,5].
A New Study Relating Brain Health and PCOS, Results Discussed
An ongoing cohort study conducted by CARDIA Women’s health has collected new data that suggests PCOS may have negative impacts on the brain[5]. Approximately one thousand women participated in this study, with roughly 6% of those women having PCOS per the study’s definition of PCOS[5]. The participants partook in a variety of cognitive tests that measured brain memory, reaction time/attention capacity, and verbal fluency[5]. In addition, a subset of the participants had brain MRI’s conducted in order to observe any differences between PCOS vs. non-PCOS participants[5].
The results of the study show that the PCOS patients, in fact, did score lower on the cognitive tests compared to the participants without PCOS. In addition, PCOS patients exhibited decreased white matter density in their brains[5]. White matter is the portion of your brain that is responsible for memory retention and coordination[17]. However, this study is unable to conclusively state that there is a significant decrease in brain function directly caused by PCOS[5].
Most published PCOS studies focus on its relation to heart health and infertility, but this is the first study that has attempted to observe a direct correlation between brain health and PCOS in women of middle age; with these new findings come a few caveats[5]. One limitation from this experiment is that the group size is not very large; the number of participants for both the cognitive testing and the MRI testing was relatively small[5]. A larger group of participants would yield a more accurate dataset and give us a greater understanding of the toll this disorder can take on the brain. Regarding the brain MRI results, further research is needed to verify whether or not the decrease in cognitive performance is directly related to PCOS or simply a consequence of aging[5]. Scientists should consider looking into certain metabolic and hormonal factors that can affect the brain as well as the current mental state of the PCOS patients. For example, depression is a common PCOS symptom which is known to decrease brain function[5]. Although performing this study was a huge step in the right direction, more research must be conducted. If future research provides evidence to support this study, it should primarily focus on preventing or slowing the rate of memory loss for affected women[2]. This could greatly improve the quality of life for PCOS patients as it may allow us to gain more insight into the mysteriously complex inner workings of this disorder[2].
[3] John Hopkins Medicine.(n.d). Retrieved from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/polycystic-ovary-syndrome-pcos#:~:text=Polycystic%20ovary%20syndrome%20(PCOS)%20is,that%20form%20in%20the%2 0ovaries.
[5] Huddleston, H.G., Jaswa, E.G., Casaletto, K.B., Neuhaus, J. , Kim, C. Wellons, etc. (2024). Associations of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome WithIndicators of Brain Health at Midlife in the CARDIA Cohort. Neurology 2024. https://www.neurology.org/doi/abs/10.1212/WNL.0000000000208104. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000208104
[6] Dennett, C. C., & Simon, J. (2015). The role of polycystic ovary syndrome in reproductive and metabolic health: overview and approaches for treatment. Diabetes spectrum : a publication of the American Diabetes Association, 28(2), 116–120. https://doi.org/10.2337/diaspect.28.2.116
[7] World Health Organization. (n.d.). Polycystic ovary syndrome.
[8] Sirmans, S. M., & Pate, K. A. (2013). Epidemiology, diagnosis, and management of polycystic ovary syndrome. Clinical epidemiology, 6, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.2147/CLEP.S37559
[9] Bromberger, A. (2022). Why Women Face Difficulties Receiving PCOS Diagnosis. Duke University.https://dukecenterforglobalreproductivehealth.org/2022/12/26/why-women-face-diffic ulty-receiving-pcos-diagnoses/
[10] Melo, A. S., Ferriani, R. A., & Navarro, P. A. (2015). Treatment of infertility in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: approach to clinical practice. Clinics (Sao Paulo, Brazil), 70(11), 765–769. https://doi.org/10.6061/clinics/2015(11)09
[11] Sharma A, Shrivastava D. Psychological Problems Related to Infertility. Cureus. 2022 Oct 15;14(10):e30320. doi: 10.7759/cureus.30320. PMID: 36407201; PMCID: PMC9661871.
[12] Azziz R. Polycystic ovary syndrome: what’s in a name? J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Apr;99(4):1142-5. doi: 10.1210/jc.2013-3996. Epub 2014 Feb 3. PMID: 24491161; PMCID: PMC3973784.
[14] Divya, M., & Ranganathan, S. (2022). “PCOS is Like Having a Disease”: The Everyday Stress of Living with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS). Indian journal of communitymedicine : official publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 47(4), 622–623. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijcm.ijcm_1374_21
[15] Brady, C., Mousa, S. S., & Mousa, S. A. (2009). Polycystic ovary syndrome and its impact on women’s quality of life: More than just an endocrine disorder. Drug, healthcare and patient safety, 1, 9–15. https://doi.org/10.2147/dhps.s4388
[17] University of North Carolina.(2021). White matter plays a complex role in brain health. https://sph.unc.edu/sph-news/white-matter-plays-a-complex-role-in-brain-health/#:~:text=While %20gray%20matter%20is%20a,and%20stay%20balanced%20when%20walking.
